In 1911, Belfast was experiencing the greatest boom in its history. The chimneys of its linen mills and the towering cranes above its shipyards symbolised the city’s commercial success. Unlike other Irish cities, where wealth was often rooted in trade, land, or lineage, Belfast’s prosperity was built on industry.
A city transformed by industrialisation
By 1911, Belfast had expanded far beyond its original boundaries, stretching into the counties of Down and Antrim. Industrialisation had dramatically reshaped its scale and character. From a population of just 25,000 in 1808, the city grew to 70,000 by 1841 and reached 385,000 by 1911—a 10% increase since the 1901 census. It had become, by a significant margin, the largest city in Ireland.
This population explosion was unique on an island where famine and emigration had caused widespread decline. Even the industrial towns of northern England could not match Belfast’s growth, which made it the fastest-growing urban area in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
From medieval outpost to industrial powerhouse
Belfast’s rise was relatively recent. Though it had a medieval castle, it only gained prominence in the early 17th century. In 1603, Arthur Chichester, a Devon landowner and Lord Deputy of Ireland, was granted Belfast Castle and its lands. He established a town populated by English and Scots settlers, while Catholic Irish communities lived mainly to the west of the fortified area.
Through the 17th and 18th centuries, Belfast developed slowly as a commercial centre. It remained a largely Presbyterian town with a reputation for radical and democratic ideals, exemplified by the role of Belfast Presbyterians in the United Irishmen and the 1798 rebellion.
The rise of linen and shipbuilding industries
Industrialisation began to reshape Belfast’s economy. Linen production, driven by mechanised spinning technology, made the city a global leader. Most linen mills were located on the Antrim side, supporting related industries such as chemical manufacturing. By 1900, over 35,000 people were employed in textiles.
Shipbuilding, though employing fewer workers, brought international acclaim. Edward Harland and Gustav Wolff transformed their shipyard into the world’s largest. By 1900, Harland and Wolff employed 9,000 people. In 1911, they launched the Titanic, the largest ship in the world at the time.
Beyond linen and shipbuilding, Belfast’s economy included engineering, ropemaking, distilling, and tobacco. These industries fuelled the city’s rapid expansion. As people poured in throughout the 19th century, Belfast evolved from a town into a city, officially incorporated in 1888.
Religious divisions and urban life
Belfast’s population was deeply divided by religion. Even before industrialisation, tensions existed between Presbyterians and members of the Church of Ireland. The arrival of tens of thousands of Catholics added a new dynamic. In 1784, Catholics made up just 8% of the population; by 1911, they accounted for 24%. Presbyterians made up 34%, Church of Ireland 30%, and Methodists 7%.
As in other industrial cities, Belfast had stark contrasts between rich and poor. The wealthy lived in areas like Malone Road and Botanic Avenue, while working-class families crowded into red-brick terraces near the shipyards. Working-class culture revolved around sport, music, and drink, but sectarianism gave it a distinct edge.
Segregation and sectarian conflict
The traditional religious divides of rural Ulster were intensified in the urban setting. The 19th century saw frequent riots between Catholics and Protestants, especially around 12 July parades and elections. By the 1850s, these disturbances often lasted for days. Residential segregation became the norm, with Catholics concentrated in the south-west and Protestants elsewhere. Discrimination in employment and education further entrenched these divisions.
Political polarisation and the road to partition
Politics in Belfast followed religious lines: Protestants supported unionism, while Catholics aligned with nationalism. By 1911, with Home Rule once again on the political agenda, tensions were escalating. Though Dublin Castle remained the administrative centre of British rule in Ireland, Belfast had become the heart of loyalism. In September 1911, unionist leader Sir Edward Carson declared at Craigavon House:
“We must be prepared … the morning Home Rule passes, ourselves to become responsible for the government of the Protestant province of Ulster.”
Within a decade, Belfast would become the capital of that “Protestant province.”